Envisioning Coexistence: Snow Leopards and Tibetan Herders in China's First National Park
Date of Award
Fall 2023
Document Type
Dissertation
Degree Name
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Department
Anthropology
First Advisor
Dove, Michael
Abstract
The concept of “harmonious coexistence” between humanity and nature has been promoted by the Chinese government as it pursues ecological civilization. This idea has also gained significant global recognition, with nearly 200 countries endorsing the commitment to “living in harmony with nature by 2050” at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity in 2022. Achieving the ambitious goal of long-term human-wildlife coexistence requires more than just scientific evidence, technological innovation, market efficiency, and policy adjustments; it also demands a transformation of values and organizing principles within our societies, including a fundamental shift in our ways of knowing and living. Over the past years, there has been a significant shift in both academic and public discussions regarding human-wildlife interactions, transitioning from the notion of “conflict” to that of “coexistence.” While there is an increasing awareness of the intricacies involved in human-wildlife relationships, there has been a lack of thorough exploration into the meaning of “coexistence.” Without critically examining the underlying assumptions of coexistence, the shift in discourse may fail to foster improved knowledge and practice that genuinely promote the continuous wellbeing and thriving of both people and wildlife. This dissertation examines the interactions among various human and nonhuman actors—including snow leopards (Panthera uncia), gray wolves (Canis lupus), brown bears (Ursus arctos), local herders, Tibetan Buddhist monks, and Han Chinese conservationists—in the Three River Source Region of Qinghai Province, China. This area, which includes the sources of some of Asia’s largest rivers, was recently designated as China’s first national park. One of the major challenges facing the Three River Source National Park is “human-wildlife conflict.” Livestock depredation by snow leopards and gray wolves, and home break-ins and human injuries caused by brown bears can have significant negative impacts on local livelihoods and safety. At the same time, conservationists are concerned that local communities may develop negative attitudes toward these large carnivores and even kill them in revenge, which could threaten their long-term survival. In this research, I seek to challenge the dominant narratives surrounding human-wildlife coexistence by examining the cultural dimension of interactions between Tibetan herders and large carnivores. Specifically, I focus on contrasting the perspectives of Tibetan Buddhist monks and Han Chinese conservation scientists. I conceptualize coexistence as a multifaceted social process that encompasses the agency of both humans and nonhuman species within what I refer to as a “natural-social-cultural nexus.” This concept captures the intricate interplay of biophysical processes, sociopolitical structures, and cultural beliefs within a specific temporal and spatial context. It acknowledges that these factors significantly shape people’s understanding of both the objectives (ends) and approaches (means) to coexistence. To gather data, I conducted 30 months of ecological and ethnographic fieldwork from March 2019 to August 2021. My research methods included participant observation, semi-structured interviews, questionnaire surveys, camera trapping, microscopic analysis of large carnivore scats, livestock depredation monitoring, collection of mobile videos capturing carnivore encounters, and other relevant approaches. I employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques, drawing upon theories and methodologies from disciplines such as conservation science, multispecies anthropology, political ecology, religion and ecology, and the policy sciences. Notably, the conceptual frameworks of Jakob von Uexküll’s “umwelt” and Charles Sanders Peirce’s semiotics played a significant role in informing and shaping this dissertation project. The dissertation consists of seven chapters that cover a wide range of topics including the historical genesis of the Three River Source, human encounters with large carnivores, local attitudes towards wildlife, ontology of coexistence, traditional ecological knowledge, Tibetan cosmology of multiple worlds, and interspecific understanding between Tibetan herders and yaks. Overall, my research highlights that achieving human-wildlife coexistence entails not only ecological and sociopolitical challenges, but also cultural challenges rooted in diverse understandings of coexistence. It emphasizes that coexistence involves more than just cohabitation with nonhuman animals; it also encompasses the coexistence of different “myths” - cosmological, ontological, epistemological, and ethical assumptions about the fundamental nature or patterns of the world, including worldviews, knowledge systems, and cultural practices. Han Chinese conservationists, often influenced by a Western scientific perspective, perceive coexistence as the opposite of conflict, based on the notions of interspecific competition for limited resources and the existence of a fixed, bounded self. In contrast, Tibetan Buddhists challenge these assumptions by emphasizing equality, interdependence, and the concept of non-self, or the absence of an inherent self. These Buddhist ideas, combined with traditional Tibetan ecological knowledge, foster a sense of equality between Tibetan herders and nonhuman beings, leading to their high tolerance towards large carnivores. However, both human and nonhuman lives, as well as their interactions, are significantly influenced by the power of the state. Despite these differences, Tibetan Buddhist monks and Han Chinese conservationists have collaborated on various conservation initiatives, with varying degrees of success and failure. This dissertation integrates philosophical considerations of plural ontologies with the diverse domains of conservation policy and practice, demonstrating how the interplay of ontology, knowledge, ethics, practice, and power shapes the dynamics of interspecies, interethnic, and intercultural coexistence in contemporary China. By examining coexistence as both an aspirational goal and a lived experience in the Three River Source region, this dissertation aims to prompt critical reflection on conventional ideas and practices of coexistence and to envision future strategies and approaches for human-wildlife coexistence. It is my hope that the insights derived from this study of inter-specific coexistence between Tibetan herders and large carnivores can provide valuable perspectives on addressing coexistence challenges in a world marked by conflicts between diverse entities and relationships, whether real or perceived.
Recommended Citation
Gao, Yufang, "Envisioning Coexistence: Snow Leopards and Tibetan Herders in China's First National Park" (2023). Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Dissertations. 1113.
https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/gsas_dissertations/1113
